Kawashima, Keiko "Paulze-Lavoisier, Marie-Anne-Pierrette". In the 1780s, French noblewoman Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier became embroiled in a scientific dispute that would reshape chemistry for ever. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Julia A. Berwind, 1953 (53.225.5) Right: lisabeth Louise Vige Le Brun (French, 17491803). - ( . He was, however, fascinated by the widow Lavoisier, a woman so conversant with so many aspects of emerging science, who knew everyone worth knowing in the scientific community, and who also happened to be ludicrously wealthy. She presented his case before Antoine Dupin, who was Lavoisier's accuser and a former member of the Ferme-Gnrale. She has been many things in her life a gifted painter who studied under Jacque-Louis David, a translator and editor of international scientific texts, the head of a regular Monday salon that attracted the capitals greatest scientific and economic minds, and a leading light in the fight for the replacement of phlogiston theory with a set of ideas that will become the basis of modern chemistry. [7], Paulze began receiving artistic instruction from the painter Jacques-Louis David in later 1785 or early 1786. Encompassing nearly three years of ongoing cross-departmental collaboration that brought together distinct fields of expertise and training, the results of our analysis and research attest to the very active lives led by objects long after they enter the Museums collection. She was born in 1758 to a father whose connections gave him a position in the General Farm, monarchical France's privatized tax collection system, and a mother who passed . Originally published by S.A. Centeno, D. Mahon, F. Car and D. Pullins, Heritage Science (Springer Open), 2021. Most strikingly, the first version clearly evinced knowledge of new forms of portraiture pioneered by women painters in the period. A century before Marie Curie made a place for women in theoretical science, editor, translator, and illustrator Marie Paulze Lavoisier (1758-1836), wife and research partner of chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, surrounded herself with laboratory work. Antoine Lavoisier: Biography, Facts & Quotes . After the loss of her mother, her father kept his boys with him but sent young Marie-Anne off to a convent where several of her aunts happened to be installed. Lacking for nothing and universally adored at her height, she is now, at the moment of her release from jail after sixty-five days of anxiously waiting to be dragged before the dread revolutionary Tribunal, unsure from whence the basic necessities of life are to come. Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze, better known as Madame Lavoisier, was born Jan. 20, 1758. When Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze was only 13 years old, she found herself in an awkward position. Registered charity number: 207890, Chemical chainmail constructed from interlocked coordination polymers, Battery assembly robot brings factory consistency to the lab, Air quality study highlights nitrogen dioxide pollution in rural India, Welcome to the Inspiring Science collection. In 1794 Antoine Lavoisier and Messer Paulze, Marie-Anne's father, were guillotined. In the case of phlogiston, it was Paulze's translation that convinced him the idea was incorrect, ultimately leading to his studies of combustion and his discovery of oxygen gas. She had survived the French Revolution, the Terror, the rise of Bonaparte, the fall of Bonaparte, and the 1830 Revolution, coming out on top of every change of fortune by virtue of her tenacity and innate sense of self-worth, and the affection of her large circle of friends who had been drawn to her by her intellect, generosity, and refreshingly brusque candor. In later drawings, of experiments on the chemistry of human respiration, Marie-Anne depicted herself seated at a table in the laboratory, taking notes. It is, of course, the latter identity that is so clearly defined today and has helped perpetuate their fame both in art history and the history of science. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. In March 1785, the Lavoisiers were finishing a series of experiments on the decomposition and recomposition of water experiments that Antoine viewed as some of the most crucial in bringing down the phlogiston theory. Some of her drawings of Lavoisiers experiments also survive, in which she often portrayed herself at the sketch table (first and fourth images).Dr. Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed. Related Papers. A friend of the Lavoisiers, Jean Baptiste Pluvinet, was related to the wife of the deputy reporter preparing the cases against the General Farm, a monsieur Dupin. It is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. She was far more than just a mouthpiece: up to speed with all latest theories, she included her own critical commentaries in her published translations of books and articles. Marie-Anne Pierrette Lavoisier (Paulze) (20 Jan 1758 - certain 10 Feb 1836) retrieved. Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze Lavoisier was a French chemist and noblewoman. Yet though Marie-Anne does feature prominently in some accounts of his work she remains entirely absent from others. Conservator Dorothy Mahon performs conservation treatment on Davids portrait of the Lavoisiers in The Mets Paintings Conservation studio. She told of her husband's accomplishments as a scientist and his importance to the nation of France. She was an assistant, a scientific illustrator and often the person observing and taking notes on his experiments as he worked. Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze Lavoisier ( 20. ledna 1758, Montbrison - 10. nora 1836, Pa) byla francouzsk lechtina, editorka, pekladatelka a ilustrtorka vdeckch prac a manelka Antoine Lavoisiera . All her possessions were confiscated, including the books and journals in which she and her husband documented their experiments. Very difficult. This website uses cookies and similar technologies to deliver its services, to analyse and improve performance and to provide personalised content and advertising. Lavoisier accepted the proposition, and he and Marie-Anne were married on 16 December 1771. As a side note, Marie-Anne played an indirect but crucial role in the shaping of the United States as a result of her relationship with Du Pont. Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier is the 115th most popular chemist (up from 157th in 2019), the 833rd most popular biography from France (up from 1,178th in 2019) and the 14th most popular French Chemist. The Parisian fashion press was so active, and trends so rapid, that the invention of a particular hat or dress can often be dated to within a few months. A combination of non-invasive infrared reflectography (IRR) and macro X-ray fluorescence mapping (MA-XRF) were employed to image and analyze the work. Her father, a well-off but not particularly powerful financier, was being asked for her hand by a . The decomposition experiment was designed so that as water flowed through the barrel of a rifle, it was decomposed by red-hot iron, the hydrogen collecting into glass bell jars. In the original copy, Paulze wrote the preface and attacked revolutionaries and Lavoisier's contemporaries, whom she believed to be responsible for his death. Photo credit: Department of Paintings Conservation, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Marie Paulze ja Antoine Lavoisier vihittiin avioliittoon jo joulukuussa 1771. Meet other daring women of the Enlightenment: Marie Paulze Lavoisier (1758-1836) Advertisment. Marie was 36 when Antoine was executed; she would live another 42 years and became quite prominent in Parisian society. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) and Marie Anne Lavoisier (Marie Anne Pierrette Paulze, 1758-1836) was purchased for the Met in 1977 by philanthropists Charles and Jayne Wrightsman. Download Free PDF. Each Saturday was devoted to science. Ley de conservacin de masas, aplicaciones en el laboratorio en y en la industria Marie Anne Pierrette Paulze (Montbrison, 1758 - 1836), es considerada como la madre de la qumica moderna. They made each other miserable, and when the separation came at last in 1809, it was a blessing to all concerned. Together, they bought a country estate and sank both money and time into introducing agricultural reform among the farmers there, with varying degrees of success. Here they would remain for most of their remaining years together, experimenting and entertaining guests. Relying on brains rather than beauty, she persuaded financiers to invest in her husbands ventures. The months following her release were hard-fought as she marshaled her remaining friends and fellow widows to demand redress from the French government for the seizure of her property and assets. She responded in a fit of almost inexplicable outrage, saying that it would dishonor Antoine-Laurent to be tried separately from his colleagues, that he was clearly innocent, and that Dupin should be ashamed to even suggest the idea. To link your comment to your profile, sign in now. Underdog Choir Spotlights Gender Disparity Around Women Music Producers, TIMES UP PSA Shines A Light On Women In Film, Television, And Visual Content Production, Forgetting Elizebeth Friedman: How Americas Greatest Cryptanalyst Lay Unnoticed For A Half Century, The Girls In The Band: Film Tells Untold Stories Of Women Jazz And Big Band Musicians, Equal Means Equal Film Underscores Urgency Of Ratifying The Equal Rights Amendment, Mother of the Telephone, Grandmother of Flight: Mabel Hubbard Bell (1857-1923), A Doctor At Skys Edge: Susan Anderson And The Practice Of Medicine On Americas Last Frontier, The Coming Planetary Renaissance of Earth Scientist And Political Candidate Jess Phoenix. Comments or corrections are welcome; please direct to ashworthw@umkc.edu. Prior to the translation coming out, political commentator Arthur Young described Marie-Anne as a woman full of life, meaning, knowledge, [who] had prepared an English lunch, with tea and coffee. Pronunciation of Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier with 1 audio pronunciations. Even the most revolutionary painters do not exist in a vacuum, and this highly successful artist was certainly attuned to what spelt success at the Paris Salon. We deliberately illustrated this experiment with period sets and instruments, as Lavoisier described them. Marie Anne Lavoisier translated Richard Kirwan's 'Essay on Phlogiston' from English to French which allowed her husband and . She returned to her studies, taking lessons in chemistry first with her new husband and then a collaborator as well as English, Latin and, under the tutelage of famous neoclassical artist Jacques-Louis David, drawing. Lead image credit: Portrait of Antoine-Laurent and Marie-Anne Lavoisier, by Jacques-Louis David, 1788 Public Domain. . Marie was his competent assistant in nearly all of his experiments; in addition, she provided the illustrations for most of his published works, including the revolutionary Trait lmentaire de chemie of 1789 (third image). Her father, who came to pick her up after she had turned thirteen in order to have her run his household, had not seen Marie-Anne since depositing her at the convent a decade ago, and was unfathomably surprised at the fact that the crying child he had dropped off was now a self-assured girl. She was by now armed with a formidable education and was quite capable of both translating and critiquing the essay. Despite her efforts, Lavoisier was tried, convicted of treason, and executed on 8 May 1794 in Paris, at the age of 50. At the time, Antoine and Marie-Annes father were both tax farmers with the Ferme gnrale, a tax collection operation that made money by collecting tax for the king. Marie Anne married Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, known as the 'Father of Modern Chemistry,' and was his chief collaborator and laboratory assistant. Her identity as a woman in the more biological sense, however, he was seemingly less interested in. This paper is intended to fill that lacuna. Working in tandem, Conservation, Scientific Research, and several curatorial departments united expertise in the material aspects of eighteenth-century painting, the limits of data produced by available technology, and the socio-artistic context of late 1780s France. . 117 Copy quote. In addition, the new government seized all of Lavoisier's notebooks and laboratory equipment. Oil on canvas. William B. Ashworth, Jr., Consultant for the History of Science, Linda Hall Library and Associate Professor, Department of History, University of Missouri-Kansas City. While many of them are simple one-line dinner invitations, others are much longer, and reveal a deep and intimate relationship that . 20 January 1758 - 10 February 1836. A century before Marie Curie made a place for women in theoretical science, editor, translator, and illustrator Marie Paulze Lavoisier (1758-1836), wife and research partner of chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, surrounded herself with laboratory work. Lavoisier requests Benjamin Franklins presence for some music after dinner. She was ordering in stock, writing out the results of the experiments and thats a very important part.. It was there that we took lunch, we discussed, we worked.. lustraci, ning ms va fer tantes aportacions al naixement de la qumica moderna com el matrimoni format pels francesos Antoine Lavoisier i Marie-Anne Pau. Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier was convicted and executed by guillotine on May 8, 1794, and on June 14, Marie-Anne herself was arrested and fully expected to share the same fate. In fact, she wrote a preface to the French version with the explicit intention of undermining Kirwans stance before the reader even got to it by alleging that the phlogiston theory was always supposing, and sometimes contradicting itself rather than being based, like Lavoisiers new chemistry, only on established facts. To his credit, her father resisted the demand, but realized that it would be only the first of many to come, not all of which he would be able to fend off. Her family was part of the She also kept strict records of the procedures followed, lending validity to the findings Lavoisier published. Napoleon, for his part, listened to Du Ponts ideas and reasons, agreed, and the United States doubled its size. Antoine-Laurent and Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze Lavoisier, 1788. One challenge was determining a solvent mixture that was not only safe for the painting but also nontoxic for the conservator. But it was obvious that she too took delight in those days. Louise S. Grinstein, Rose K Rose, and. She refutes without hesitating the doctrine of the great scholars of the time. Despite his progressive outlook, Antoine along with other royal tax collectors including Marie-Annes own father was arrested and eventually guillotined for defrauding the state. How to say Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier in English? Interested in his research, Madame Lavoisier began to study chemistry . Madame Lavoisier was the wife of the chemist and nobleman Antoine Lavoisier, and acted as his laboratory companion and contributed to his work. Sitelinks. As science historian Keiko Kawashima argued in a 2000 paper about her translation, this preface was a brazen attack on Kirwan and his disciples. Self-Portrait with Two Pupils, Marie Gabrielle Capet (17611818) and Marie Marguerite Carreaux de Rosemond (died 1788), 1785. From La Magasin des Modes Nouvelles, no. On 28 November 1793 Lavoisier surrendered to revolutionaries and was imprisoned at Port-Libre. After her release she continued to write protest letters . Paulze, being a master in the English, Latin, and French language, was able to translate various works about phlogiston into French for her husband to read. antonio caronia. This was an invaluable service to Lavoisier, who relied on Paulze's translation of foreign works to keep abreast of current developments in chemistry. Right: Detail of hat revealed through the combined elemental distribution map of lead (shown in white) and mercury (shown in red) obtained by macro x-ray fluorescence (MA-XRF) in Jacques-Louis Davids Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (17431794) and Marie Anne Lavoisier (Marie Anne Pierrette Paulze, 17581836) (1788). La scienza in scena. El retrato de Antoine y Marie Anne Lavoisier pintado en 1788 por Jacques-Louis David es todo un icono de la ciencia.El cuadro, que se encuentra en el Metropolitan Museum de Nueva York, representa . [3] Furthermore, she served as the editor of his reports. Reinstallation of Davids portrait in The Mets European Paintings galleries in 2020, following conservation treatment and technical analysis. Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze (20 January 1758 in Montbrison, Loire, France - 10 February 1836) was a French chemist and noble. She was credited only for the illustrations, however. Slowly, most of what was once hers was returned to her, including her fathers priceless library and her husbands treasured laboratory equipment. Lavoisier was about 28, while Marie-Anne was about 13. Madame Lavoisier was the wife of the chemist and nobleman Antoine Lavoisier, and acted as his laboratory companion and contributed to his work. Initial observations by conservator Dorothy Mahon prompted an extended campaign of technical and art-historical analysis in dialogue with research scientist Silvia A. Centeno and associate curator David Pullins. In fact, the majority of the research effort put forth in the laboratory was actually a joint effort between Paulze and her husband, with Paulze mainly playing the role of laboratory assistant. Photo credit: Department of Scientific Research, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Lavoisier scholar Jean-Pierre Poirier holds it likely that she simply misread the gravity of the situation Antoine-Laurent was in. For the next quarter century, Marie-Anne enjoyed life to its fullest measure. MA-XRF mapping produces a set of data that can only be visualized when processed and interpreted by specially trained conservation scientists. Yleens hnet tunnetaan Antoine Lavoisierin vaimona, nimell Madame Lavoisier . By 1787, when Kirwans phlogiston essay was published, Marie-Anne was nearly 30. Marie-Anne asked Antoine-Laurent to teach her what he knew of chemistry and physics and he responded with the first instinct of all great teachers: How can I teach a subject I know so little of? All rights reserved. Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier is most famous for being the wife of Antoine Lavoisier, a chemist who discovered the law of conservation of mass. Lavoisier was soon appointed to a government post at the Arsenal and began his rise through the chemical ranks. Continue Reading. [1] Madame Lavoisier was the wife of the chemist and nobleman Antoine Lavoisier, and acted as his laboratory companion and contributed to his work. Lavoisier was about 28, while Marie-Anne was about 13.[1]. Marie Paulze Lavoisier. Later Paulze's ties with David were severed due to the radical politics of the latter in the context of the French Revolution.[8]. The red tablecloth was once draped over a desk decorated in gilt bronze and, perhaps most surprisingly, the scientific instruments that announce the couples place at the birth of modern chemistryand so define the portrait todaywere all the result of a later campaign that reworked how the Lavoisiers were presented. Marie-Anne fue esposa de Antoine Lavoisie, a quien asista en el laboratorio durante el da, anotando observaciones en el libro de notas y dibujando diagramas Rumford hated the constant entertaining, and Marie-Anne hated having to constantly refuse hospitality to her circle of friends and admirers. Education in Chemistry, November 1985. This colleague was Antoine Lavoisier, a French nobleman and scientist. While her husband is celebrated for reforming chemistry with his revolutionary textbook, it was her meticulous illustrations that enabled chemists all over the world to replicate his trials. Antoine Lavoisier was a chemist who opposed the phlogiston theory and other remnants of science that were more akin to alchemy than chemistry. The red paint observed through the craquelure of the blue ribbonsand corroborated by the MA-XRF and the analysis of paint samples revealing vermilionwas a logical complement to the hat. Enjoy reading and share 11 famous quotes about Marie Paulze Lavoisier with everyone. How did the two relate? In a symposium, "It's All About Oxygen," at the annual meeting of the AAAS, Cornell professor Roald Hoffmann, author of the one-act play, "Oxygen," discussed his muse, Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze . Borgias, Adriane P. "Marie Anne Pierrette Paulze Lavoisier." The arrival of a new girl, a daughter of a rich member of the General Farm, was so much blood in the water to the Parisian social climber set, and soon after settling down, her fathers patron put pressure on him to marry her off to an elderly acquaintance of low means and unknown character. . 5 August 2021 . Paulze accompanied Lavoisier in his lab during the day, making entries into his lab notebooks and sketching diagrams of his experimental designs. In 1771, her father arranged for her to marry 28-year-old Antoine Lavoisier, avoiding a match with another man nearly four times her age. Learn more about the teams findings in Heritage Science and The Burlington Magazine. MA-XRF reveals the distribution of elements composing the pigments in the paints, including those below the surface, thereby providing detailed maps allowing for indications of underlying paints. The following year, Marie-Anne contributed 13 illustrations to Antoines chemistry textbook, Trait lmentaire de chimie. Yet du Chtelet was not alone. Her mother, Claudine Thoynet Paulze, died in 1761, leaving behind Marie-Anne, then aged 3, and two other sons. chemist: guillotined. She agonized over the introduction, outlining Antoine-Laurents place in history and lamenting his sudden end, but left the main text largely as it was when Lavoisier and his assistant Seguin, were first compiling it. If you look back through history, there are thousands of invisible assistants who are actually making experiments work. Though its uncertain if she was ever involved in further science experiments, she arranged the publication of Antoines memoirs in 1805 and wrote the preface herself. Marie-Anne was Antoine-Laurents trusted intellectual companion, his immediate link with the work in English and Latin that he could not himself understand, and the staunchest defender of his theories. 7. [1] Marie Lavoisier foi frecuentemente mencionada no seu papel de esposa do cientfico Antoine Lavoisier , anda que son menos difundidos os seus logros . As far as I know, however, it isnt available in English translation, so if you dont know French then Id point you to a chapter on Madame Lavoisier in the recently published Women in their Element (2019). Because the canvas is so large, sections were chosen and studied before comprehending the whole. You're not signed in. [1] She played a pivotal role in the translation of several scientific works, and was instrumental to the standardization of the scientific method. 102 1/4 x 76 5/8 in. Known as a translator and illustrator of chemical texts, Marie-Anne Paulze-Lavoisier (1758-1836) has been often represented as the associate of male savants and especially of her husband, the French chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier. Read our privacy policy. Information about your use of this website will be shared with Google and other third parties. According to Fara: If you look back through history, there are thousands of invisible assistants who are actually making experiments work and women are one particular category of invisible assistants. At one point in this preface, she had the audacity to make what constituted almost a head count of scientists who had deserted the phlogiston hypothesis. She was also an accomplished artist. After arriving in Conservation in March 2019, Dorothy spent nearly ten months carefully removing the varnish. Lavoisier continued to work for the Ferme-Gnrale but in 1775 was appointed gunpowder administrator, leading the couple to settle down at the Arsenal in Paris. Marie Anne Lavoisier translated Richard Kirwan's 'Essay on Phlogiston' from English to French which allowed her husband and . Lavoisier, because of his high government position in the tax agency Farmers General, was accused of being a traitor during the Reign of Terror in 1794. Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze Lavoisier (1758 - 1836) was a French chemist and the wife of Antoine Lavoisier, acting as his lab assistant and contributing to his work. Dorothy retouched small losses and the surface was revarnished. Oil on canvas, 45 x 34 1/2 in. Antoine poured his money into science experiments and without the distraction of children (they never had any) Marie-Anne seems to have thrown herself wholeheartedly into learning about and promoting her husbands work. Life was good for about twenty years, and then it got very bad. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Jessie Woolworth Donahue, 1954 (54.182). Marie-Anne was more than just her husbands translator. Born January 20, 1758, Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier was lab assistant to her husband, Antoine Lavoisier, whom she married at the age of 13. Top Marie Paulze Lavoisier Quotes. Members of the Royal Academy of the Sciences turned up to watch. An invitation dated 24th January 1783 from Mr. Dupin extended an offer to Marie-Anne to try Lavoisier separately from the rest of the Farmers, thereby almost assuredly guaranteeing him a better hearing. Paulze contributed thirteen drawings that showed all the laboratory instrumentation and equipment used by the Lavoisiers in their experiments. She even briefly married another scientist, the American/Englishman/Bavarian whirlwind, Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, but their marriage was tempestuous and short-lived, their discord no doubt aided by the fact that even in her new marriage, she refused to be called by any other name than Madame Lavoisier, for she carried on the battle for Antoine's reputation until her death. Madame Lavoisier prepared herself to be her husband's scientific collaborator by learning English to translate the work of British chemists like Joseph Priestley and by studying art and engraving to illustrate Antoine-Laurent's scientific experiments. Its pristine condition kept it out of the Museums Department of Paintings Conservation until 2019, when curator emerita Katharine Baetjer suggested the removal of a degraded synthetic varnish on the paintings surface. Jacques-Louis David's (1748-1825) iconic portrait of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) and Marie-Anne Lavoisier (Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, 1758-1836) has come to epitomize a modern . [5] She also translated works by Joseph Priestley, Henry Cavendish, and others for Lavoisier's personal use. [4][3] Despite her contributions, she was not attributed as a translator in the original work but in later editions. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. In this task, the expertise of research scientist Federico Car in chemical analyses using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) was crucial. She refutes without hesitating the doctrine of the great scholars of the time, he writes. He allowed himself to ignore the fact that she lived to make her home the social center of a free-wheeling set of intellectual lights. Marie kept lab notes for her husband. Change, Creating, Transformation. She was born in 1758 to a father whose connections gave him a position in the General Farm, monarchical Frances privatized tax collection system, and a mother who passed away when she was only three years old. Lavoisier accepted the proposition, and he and Marie-Anne were married on 16 December 1771. Photo credit: Eddie Knox Oxford Films, 2020. Examination of the Lavoisiers inventories allowed David to posit objects that may have been represented in the painting. Dupin, taken aback by the sudden rejection of his offer, left, and the proposal was never put forward again. However, the best meal, he wrote, was his conversation with her about Kirwans Essay on Phlogiston. Pronunciation of Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier with 2 audio pronunciations, 1 meaning and more for Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier is often referred to as the father of modern chemistry and Marie Anne Lavoisier is known as a key collaborator in his experimentsaspects of the couples personality that have been well served by this famous image. Her art portfolio is also on display and, despite the preened appearance, she has the air of an accomplished woman on equal terms with her husband. Together, the Lavoisiers rebuilt the field of chemistry, which had its roots in alchemy and at the time was a convoluted science dominated by George Stahls theory of phlogiston. In the 1780s, French noblewoman Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier became embroiled in a scientific dispute that would reshape chemistry for ever. Le Journal Polytype des Sciences et des Arts reported on the experiments the following year, alongside detailed drawings of the apparatus by Marie-Anne.